https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Johnmcgee2000 2026-08-13T13:08:21Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.39.10 https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/index.php?title=Bridge_design&diff=6423 2007-10-23T11:41:18Z

<p>Johnmcgee2000: </p> <hr /> <div>'''== Basic features of bridges =='''<br /> <br /> '''Superstructure'''<br /> <br /> The superstructure of a bridge is the part directly responsible for carrying the road or other service. Its layout is determined largely by the disposition of the service to be carried. In most cases, there is a deck structure that carries the loads from the individual wheels and distributes the loads to the principal structural elements, such as beams spanning between the substructure supports.<br /> <br /> Road bridges carry a number of traffic lanes, in one or two directions, and may also carry footways. At the edge of the bridge, parapets are provided for the protection of vehicles and people. The arrangement of traffic lanes and footways is usually decided by the highway engineer.<br /> Traffic lane and footpath widths, along with clear height above the carriageway are usually specified by the highway authority. Whilst the bridge designer has little influence over selecting the layout and geometry of the running surface, he does determine the structural form of<br /> the superstructure. In doing so, he must balance requirements for the substructure and superstructure, whilst achieving necessary clearances above and across the obstacle below.<br /> <br /> Rail bridges typically carry two tracks, laid on ballast, although separate superstructures are often provided for each track. Railway gradients are much more limited than roadway gradients and because of this the construction depth of the superstructure (from rail level<br /> to the underside or soffit of the bridge) is often very limited. This limitation frequently results in ‘half through’ construction. Railway loading is greater than highway loading and consequently the superstructures for railway bridges are usually much heavier than for highway bridges.<br /> <br /> Footbridges are smaller lighter structures. They are narrow (about 2m wide) and are usually single span structures that rarely span more than 40m.<br /> <br /> '''Substructure'''<br /> <br /> The substructure of a bridge is responsible for supporting the superstructure and carrying the loads to the ground through foundations.<br /> <br /> To support the superstructure, single span bridges require two ‘abutments’, one at each end of the bridge. Where the bearing strength of the soil is good, these abutments can be quite small, for example a strip foundation on an embankment. Foundations on poor soils must either be broad spread footings or be piled. The abutments may<br /> also act as retaining walls, for example to hold back the end of an approach embankment.<br /> <br /> Multiple span bridges require intermediate supports, often called ‘piers’, to provide additional support to the superstructure. The locations of these supports are usually constrained by the topography of the ground, though where the superstructure is long the designer may<br /> be able to choose the number and spacing of piers for overall economy or appearance. Intermediate supports are generally constructed of reinforced concrete.<br /> <br /> '''Integral construction'''<br /> <br /> Traditionally, movement (expansion) joints have been provided at the ends of the superstructure, to accommodate expansion/contraction. Experience in<br /> recent years has been that such joints require on-going maintenance, yet they inevitably leak and result in deterioration of the substructure below the joint. For bridges of modest overall length, it is now common to<br /> use integral construction, with no movement joint. In its simplest form, the ends of the superstructure are cast into the tops of the abutments.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''== Beam bridges =='''<br /> <br /> '''Beam and slab bridges'''<br /> <br /> A beam and slab bridge is one where a reinforced concrete deck slab sits on top of several steel I-beams, side-by-side, and acts compositely with them in bending. It is presently the most common type of medium span<br /> highway bridge being built in the UK. This form of construction is suitable for spans ranging from 13m up to 100m or more, and is economically competitive with reinforced or prestressed concrete construction. The road traffic runs on top of the slab, and the girders and slab effectively form a series of composite T-beams side-byside.<br /> The continuity of the slab across all these beams<br /> helps to spread the traffic loading between the beams.<br /> <br /> For shorter spans (up to 25m for simple spans, up to 30m for continuous spans) the girders can be rolled I-sections (Universal Beams). Larger spans require the use of purpose-made plate girders, each fabricated from two flange plates and a web plate.<br /> <br /> Very little fabrication is necessary with rolled section girders, usually only the fitting of stiffeners for support bearings and the attachment of bracing. Although the need to fabricate larger girders from plate necessitates more fabrication, it does give scope to vary the girder<br /> sections to suit the loads carried at different positions along the bridge and thus achieve maximum economy. A wide variety of different shapes and arrangements of plate girder bridge have developed.<br /> <br /> For example, the designer can choose to vary the depth of the girder along its length. It is quite common to increase the girder depth over intermediate supports or to reduce it in midspan. For spans below about 50m, the choice (constant or varying depth) is often governed by aesthetics. Above 50m, varied depth also offers economy because of the weight savings possible in midspan regions. The variation in depth can be achieved either by straight haunching (tapered girders) or by curving the bottom flange upwards. The shaped web, either for a variable depth<br /> girder or for a constant depth girder with a vertical camber, is easily achieved by profile cutting during fabrication.<br /> <br /> At the lower end of the span range for plate girder beam and slab bridges, girders are typically spaced between about 3.0 and 3.5m apart transversely and thus, for an ordinary two-lane highway bridge, four girders are provided. This suits an economic thickness of the deck<br /> slab that distributes the direct loads from the wheels by bending transversely.<br /> <br /> When the spans exceed about 30m, an alternative arrangement with only two main girders is frequently used. Then the slab is supported on crossbeams at about 3.5m spacing; the slab spans longitudinally between<br /> crossbeams and the crossbeams span transversely between the two main girders. This form of construction is often called a ‘ladder deck’</div>

Johnmcgee2000 https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/index.php?title=Bridge_design&diff=6422 2007-10-23T11:35:36Z

<p>Johnmcgee2000: </p> <hr /> <div>'''== Basic features of bridges =='''<br /> <br /> '''Superstructure'''<br /> <br /> The superstructure of a bridge is the part directly responsible for carrying the road or other service. Its layout is determined largely by the disposition of the service to be carried. In most cases, there is a deck structure that carries the loads from the individual wheels and distributes the loads to the principal structural elements, such as beams spanning between the substructure supports.<br /> <br /> Road bridges carry a number of traffic lanes, in one or two directions, and may also carry footways. At the edge of the bridge, parapets are provided for the protection of vehicles and people. The arrangement of traffic lanes and footways is usually decided by the highway engineer.<br /> Traffic lane and footpath widths, along with clear height above the carriageway are usually specified by the highway authority. Whilst the bridge designer has little influence over selecting the layout and geometry of the running surface, he does determine the structural form of<br /> the superstructure. In doing so, he must balance requirements for the substructure and superstructure, whilst achieving necessary clearances above and across the obstacle below.<br /> <br /> Rail bridges typically carry two tracks, laid on ballast, although separate superstructures are often provided for each track. Railway gradients are much more limited than roadway gradients and because of this the construction depth of the superstructure (from rail level<br /> to the underside or soffit of the bridge) is often very limited. This limitation frequently results in ‘half through’ construction. Railway loading is greater than highway loading and consequently the superstructures for railway bridges are usually much heavier than for highway bridges.<br /> <br /> Footbridges are smaller lighter structures. They are narrow (about 2m wide) and are usually single span structures that rarely span more than 40m.<br /> <br /> '''Substructure'''<br /> <br /> The substructure of a bridge is responsible for supporting the superstructure and carrying the loads to the ground through foundations.<br /> <br /> To support the superstructure, single span bridges require two ‘abutments’, one at each end of the bridge. Where the bearing strength of the soil is good, these abutments can be quite small, for example a strip foundation on an embankment. Foundations on poor soils must either be broad spread footings or be piled. The abutments may<br /> also act as retaining walls, for example to hold back the end of an approach embankment.<br /> <br /> Multiple span bridges require intermediate supports, often called ‘piers’, to provide additional support to the superstructure. The locations of these supports are usually constrained by the topography of the ground, though where the superstructure is long the designer may<br /> be able to choose the number and spacing of piers for overall economy or appearance. Intermediate supports are generally constructed of reinforced concrete.<br /> <br /> '''Integral construction'''<br /> <br /> Traditionally, movement (expansion) joints have been provided at the ends of the superstructure, to accommodate expansion/contraction. Experience in<br /> recent years has been that such joints require on-going maintenance, yet they inevitably leak and result in deterioration of the substructure below the joint. For bridges of modest overall length, it is now common to<br /> use integral construction, with no movement joint. In its simplest form, the ends of the superstructure are cast into the tops of the abutments.</div>

Johnmcgee2000 https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/index.php?title=Bridge_design&diff=6421 2007-10-23T11:34:32Z

<p>Johnmcgee2000: </p> <hr /> <div>'''== Basic features of bridges =='''<br /> <br /> '''Superstructure'''<br /> <br /> The superstructure of a bridge is the part directly responsible for carrying the road or other service. Its layout is determined largely by the disposition of the service to be carried. In most cases, there is a deck structure that carries the loads from the individual wheels and distributes the loads to the principal structural elements, such as beams spanning between the substructure supports.<br /> <br /> Road bridges carry a number of traffic lanes, in one or two directions, and may also carry footways. At the edge of the bridge, parapets are provided for the protection of vehicles and people. The arrangement of traffic lanes and footways is usually decided by the highway engineer.<br /> Traffic lane and footpath widths, along with clear height above the carriageway are usually specified by the highway authority. Whilst the bridge designer has little influence over selecting the layout and geometry of the running surface, he does determine the structural form of<br /> the superstructure. In doing so, he must balance requirements for the substructure and superstructure, whilst achieving necessary clearances above and across the obstacle below.<br /> <br /> Rail bridges typically carry two tracks, laid on ballast, although separate superstructures are often provided for each track. Railway gradients are much more limited than roadway gradients and because of this the construction depth of the superstructure (from rail level<br /> to the underside or soffit of the bridge) is often very limited. This limitation frequently results in ‘half through’ construction. Railway loading is greater than highway loading and consequently the superstructures for railway bridges are usually much heavier than for highway bridges.<br /> <br /> Footbridges are smaller lighter structures. They are narrow (about 2m wide) and are usually single span structures that rarely span more than 40m.<br /> <br /> '''Substructure'''<br /> <br /> The substructure of a bridge is responsible for supporting the superstructure and carrying the loads to the ground through foundations.<br /> <br /> To support the superstructure, single span bridges require two ‘abutments’, one at each end of the bridge. Where the bearing strength of the soil is good, these abutments can be quite small, for example a strip foundation on an embankment. Foundations on poor soils must either be broad spread footings or be piled. The abutments may<br /> also act as retaining walls, for example to hold back the end of an approach embankment.<br /> <br /> Multiple span bridges require intermediate supports, often called ‘piers’, to provide additional support to the superstructure. The locations of these supports are usually constrained by the topography of the ground, though where the superstructure is long the designer may<br /> be able to choose the number and spacing of piers for overall economy or appearance. Intermediate supports are generally constructed of reinforced concrete.</div>

Johnmcgee2000 https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/index.php?title=Bridge_design&diff=6420 2007-10-23T11:31:59Z

<p>Johnmcgee2000: New page: &#039;&#039;&#039;== Basic features of bridges ==&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;Superstructure&#039;&#039;&#039; The superstructure of a bridge is the part directly responsible for carrying the road or other service. Its layout is determine...</p> <hr /> <div>'''== Basic features of bridges =='''<br /> <br /> '''Superstructure'''<br /> <br /> The superstructure of a bridge is the part directly responsible for carrying the road or other service. Its layout is determined largely by the disposition of the service to be carried. In most cases, there is a deck structure that carries the loads from the individual wheels and distributes the loads to the principal structural elements, such as beams spanning between the substructure supports.<br /> <br /> Road bridges carry a number of traffic lanes, in one or two directions, and may also carry footways. At the edge of the bridge, parapets are provided for the protection of vehicles and people. The arrangement of traffic lanes and footways is usually decided by the highway engineer.<br /> Traffic lane and footpath widths, along with clear height above the carriageway are usually specified by the highway authority. Whilst the bridge designer has little influence over selecting the layout and geometry of the running surface, he does determine the structural form of<br /> the superstructure. In doing so, he must balance requirements for the substructure and superstructure, whilst achieving necessary clearances above and across the obstacle below.<br /> <br /> Rail bridges typically carry two tracks, laid on ballast, although separate superstructures are often provided for each track. Railway gradients are much more limited than roadway gradients and because of this the construction depth of the superstructure (from rail level<br /> to the underside or soffit of the bridge) is often very limited. This limitation frequently results in ‘half through’ construction. Railway loading is greater than highway loading and consequently the superstructures for railway bridges are usually much heavier than for highway bridges.<br /> <br /> Footbridges are smaller lighter structures. They are narrow (about 2m wide) and are usually single span structures that rarely span more than 40m.</div>

Johnmcgee2000 https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/index.php?title=Steel_design&diff=6419 2007-10-23T11:24:27Z

<p>Johnmcgee2000: </p> <hr /> <div>'''== Preliminary Sizing of Elements =='''<br /> <br /> '''Portal frame'''<br /> <br /> Steel portal frames are capable of spanning large distances. They are<br /> used in the construction of factories and warehouses, and other low-rise<br /> buildings that require wide spans. Wall and roof bracing is normally<br /> provided in selected bays, often at the end of buildings. Additional<br /> vertical column or beam sections may be introduced at the gables<br /> (wind posts) to support cladding on end walls.<br /> <br /> Roof beams (rafters) and columns are usually fabricated from rolled<br /> steel sections, while purlins and cladding rails are usually in light<br /> steel sections. Liner trays may be used as an alternative to cladding<br /> rails.<br /> <br /> Cladding materials include built-up cladding systems (as shown),<br /> composite cladding panels, and masonry.<br /> <br /> Small single storey industrial buildings can also be constructed<br /> using light steel sections for the columns and rafters<br /> <br /> [[Approximate structural sizing]]<br /> <br /> ROOF BEAMS (RAFTERS)<br /> <br /> Typical span = 20-50 m<br /> <br /> Beam depth = Span/60<br /> <br /> Cold formed rafters span up to 18 m<br /> <br /> COLUMNS<br /> <br /> Column depth = 1.25 x roof beam<br /> <br /> Width = as UB sections</div>

Johnmcgee2000 https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/index.php?title=Steel_design&diff=6418 2007-10-23T11:21:55Z

<p>Johnmcgee2000: New page: &#039;&#039;&#039;== Preliminary Sizing of Elements ==&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;Portal frame&#039;&#039;&#039; Steel portal frames are capable of spanning large distances. They are used in the construction of factories and warehouses, ...</p> <hr /> <div><br /> '''== Preliminary Sizing of Elements =='''<br /> <br /> '''Portal frame'''<br /> Steel portal frames are capable of spanning large distances. They are<br /> used in the construction of factories and warehouses, and other low-rise<br /> buildings that require wide spans. Wall and roof bracing is normally<br /> provided in selected bays, often at the end of buildings. Additional<br /> vertical column or beam sections may be introduced at the gables<br /> (wind posts) to support cladding on end walls.<br /> <br /> Roof beams (rafters) and columns are usually fabricated from rolled<br /> steel sections, while purlins and cladding rails are usually in light<br /> steel sections. Liner trays may be used as an alternative to cladding<br /> rails.<br /> <br /> Cladding materials include built-up cladding systems (as shown),<br /> composite cladding panels, and masonry.<br /> <br /> Small single storey industrial buildings can also be constructed<br /> using light steel sections for the columns and rafters</div>

Johnmcgee2000 https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/index.php?title=Building_design&diff=6417 2007-10-23T11:07:59Z

<p>Johnmcgee2000: New page: == &#039;&#039;&#039;Conceptual Design&#039;&#039;&#039; == The following lists provide an aide memoir for a number of the constraints, parameters and performance requirements. They should not be regarded as being co...</p> <hr /> <div>== '''Conceptual Design''' ==<br /> <br /> <br /> The following lists provide an aide memoir for a number<br /> of the constraints, parameters and performance<br /> requirements. They should not be regarded as being<br /> comprehensive and the reader is invited to add other<br /> items that experience has shown need to be added.<br /> <br /> '''Typical needs'''<br /> • Overall dimensions<br /> • Stairs, doors and windows<br /> • Façade treatment and appearance<br /> • Vertical transport<br /> • Distribution of services<br /> • Clearance heights and floor spaces<br /> • Use and architectural layout<br /> <br /> '''Stated constraints are those listed in the Task Statement'''<br /> • Available site dimensions<br /> • Column spacing<br /> • Floor heights<br /> • Minimum clear spans<br /> • Soil conditions<br /> • Wind speed<br /> • Imposed loading<br /> <br /> Unstated constraints are those not mentioned in the Task Statement either through ignorance or because they are taken for granted <br /> <br /> '''Architectural constraints'''<br /> • Column spacing<br /> • Stairs, doors, windows and lifts<br /> • Clear floor-to-ceiling height<br /> • Structural material<br /> • Statutory Regulations<br /> • Fire resistance<br /> • Roof and drainage details<br /> • Façade treatment<br /> • Services (H&amp;V, lighting, water and drainage)<br /> • Non-structural materials<br /> <br /> '''Building construction constraints'''<br /> • Fast-build programme<br /> • Access to site<br /> • Adjacent buildings<br /> • Ground conditions<br /> • Foundation and basement requirements<br /> • Related to concrete construction: mix-on-site or ready mixed, transport, reinforcement, falsework and formwork, precast concrete, working sequence<br /> • Floor systems<br /> • Construction equipment<br /> • Labour skills<br /> <br /> '''Building material constraints'''<br /> • Ability to cope with movement: structural movement; intrinsic movement (i.e. shrinkage);temperature (both diurnal and seasonal)<br /> • Availability (reference countries outside the UK)<br /> • Durability: maintenance; repair; replacement<br /> • Appearance: applied finishes; manufactured finishes; weathering<br /> • Buildability: prefabrication; cast-on-site; method of attachment; connections<br /> <br /> '''Structural engineering and safety constraints'''<br /> • Statutory regulations and Codes of Practice<br /> • Structural materials<br /> • Strength, stiffness, fatigue, etc.<br /> • Construction method and sequence<br /> • Possibility of overload<br /> • Connections<br /> • Foundations<br /> • Fire resistance<br /> • Watertightness, durability and deterioration<br /> • Column spacing and floor system<br /> • Stability, bracing and shear walls<br /> • Future extensions or change of use<br /> • Distribution of services<br /> • Architectural layout<br /> <br /> '''Performance requirements'''<br /> • Structural safety: safely buildable, safe in use, safely removed after use; cracking; records for future alterations and/or extensions<br /> • Serviceability (all relative to the intended service life): fire resistance; thermal insulation; acoustic insulation; durability and cracking; movement and vibration - load induced and/or inherent to materials<br /> • Maintenance: Preserve the performance – cracking; records of condition, repairs made, replacements<br /> • Economic construction: ‘value for money’; Initial cost; cost in use<br /> • Structure: support external envelope; support the finishes; support the services; support the people and contents<br /> • Enclosure: non-loadbearing internal walls and partitions; non-loadbearing external walls and windows<br /> • Finishes: insulation: weatherproofing; wearing surfaces; superficial appearance, inside and outside<br /> • Services: water supply and storage; heating and cooling, ventilation; prevention of excessive heating or cooling; artificial light; power, lifts, etc.; waste disposal; fire escape; rainwater disposal<br /> • Basements: watertightness, sumps and pumping; appearance, lighting and ventilation; access – general and emergency<br /> <br /> The features of a feasible scheme will be dictated by a number of analytical, material and constructional parameters<br /> <br /> '''Analytical parameters'''<br /> • The perception of the loads: imposed, imposed dead, and self-weight or dead loads. The type of load: uniform, point, moving, cyclic, etc.<br /> • The characteristics of the structural materials: strengths in tension, compression, shear, stiffness of the material (E value), weights. Effects of temperature, moisture and sustained loading<br /> • Span, height and support conditions: one-way or two-way spanning, simple or continuous spans; combined stresses such as with columns where the compression can be combined with uni-axial or biaxial bending; hinged, sliding or fixed support<br /> <br /> '''Material parameters'''<br /> • Ability to cope with structural and non-structural movements<br /> • Availability (restricted in some countries by cost, custom or lack of appropriate skills)<br /> • Appearance (as required by client of architect, or as available from the method of construction)<br /> • Durability (influenced by the environment, façade treatment and appearance required)<br /> • Maintenance (functions of the physical nature of the materials, the environment, expected economic life of the subject, architectural finishes, safety and seviceability constraints)<br /> • Method of assembly (influenced by the physical nature of the materials, local customs and skills, available machinery, transport and programme) Constructional parameters<br /> • The construction method shall be safe and stable and may not endanger humans nor adjacent property, roads or services<br /> • Short- and long-term support during demolition, including underpinning and shoring<br /> • Control of dust and noise levels<br /> • Support to sides of excavations<br /> • Control of groundwater<br /> • Transport and placing of materials<br /> • Suitability of mechanical plant and equipment (e.g. scaffolding)<br /> • Protection of the public, and protection of the amenity and environment<br /> • Programme<br /> • Cost<br /> • Stability during construction<br /> • Early weathertightness<br /> • Attention to the special sequence-dependent construction<br /> <br /> '''Technology identification'''<br /> • Framed system: slabs and beams; columns and walls; cantilevers; girders and Vierendeel girders; portals; bracing<br /> • Trussed system: trusses; space frames; cable stays; geodesic domes<br /> • Funicular systems: catenary cable; tents; pneumatics; arches; vaults<br /> • Surface structures: shells; folded plates<br /> • Principal axis: transverse; longitudinal; bi-axial (square, circle)<br /> • Material: steel (rolled sections; traditional site bolted; welded fabrication; site-welded connections); concrete (in situ; precast; pre- or post-tensioned);<br /> timber; masonry (stone; brick; concrete block); other (alloys; synthetics; glass); composites<br /> • Foundation: traditional strip footing; pad or pier with groundbeams; pile, caisson, barrette; combined base; raft, cellular raft; basement<br /> • Stability: gravity structure; bracing; shear walls, core, hull-core; rigid joint; anchors<br /> • Multi-storey: From ground to roof or full-height frame; raised on pillotis and then full-height frame; Fullheight frame with alternative groups of floors<br /> (villages) and penetrations (gardens); Core – roof frame – hangers, beams and slabs<br /> • Floor systems: concrete (beam and slab construction; flat slabs and flat plates; waffle and ribbed slabs; prestressed slabs; precast units; patented systems); steel (metal decking with concrete topping; steel beams with composite concrete slab; steel beams with precast concrete slab); timber (beam, joist and floor boards)<br /> • Special issues: retaining walls; waterproofing of basements; water-containing structures; earthquake resisting structures.</div>

Johnmcgee2000 https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/index.php?title=Category:Design_Resources&diff=6416 2007-10-23T11:07:32Z

<p>Johnmcgee2000: Replacing page with &#039;Outline of design resources: # Sample Calculations # Sample Drawings # Sample Details&#039;</p> <hr /> <div>Outline of design resources:<br /> <br /> # Sample Calculations<br /> # Sample Drawings<br /> # Sample Details</div>

Johnmcgee2000 https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/index.php?title=Category:Design_Resources&diff=6415 2007-10-23T11:06:14Z

<p>Johnmcgee2000: </p> <hr /> <div>Outline of design resources:<br /> <br /> # Sample Calculations<br /> # Sample Drawings<br /> # Sample Details<br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Conceptual Design''' ==<br /> <br /> <br /> The following lists provide an aide memoir for a number<br /> of the constraints, parameters and performance<br /> requirements. They should not be regarded as being<br /> comprehensive and the reader is invited to add other<br /> items that experience has shown need to be added.<br /> <br /> '''Typical needs'''<br /> • Overall dimensions<br /> • Stairs, doors and windows<br /> • Façade treatment and appearance<br /> • Vertical transport<br /> • Distribution of services<br /> • Clearance heights and floor spaces<br /> • Use and architectural layout<br /> <br /> '''Stated constraints are those listed in the Task Statement'''<br /> • Available site dimensions<br /> • Column spacing<br /> • Floor heights<br /> • Minimum clear spans<br /> • Soil conditions<br /> • Wind speed<br /> • Imposed loading<br /> <br /> Unstated constraints are those not mentioned in the Task Statement either through ignorance or because they are taken for granted <br /> <br /> '''Architectural constraints'''<br /> • Column spacing<br /> • Stairs, doors, windows and lifts<br /> • Clear floor-to-ceiling height<br /> • Structural material<br /> • Statutory Regulations<br /> • Fire resistance<br /> • Roof and drainage details<br /> • Façade treatment<br /> • Services (H&amp;V, lighting, water and drainage)<br /> • Non-structural materials<br /> <br /> '''Building construction constraints'''<br /> • Fast-build programme<br /> • Access to site<br /> • Adjacent buildings<br /> • Ground conditions<br /> • Foundation and basement requirements<br /> • Related to concrete construction: mix-on-site or ready mixed, transport, reinforcement, falsework and formwork, precast concrete, working sequence<br /> • Floor systems<br /> • Construction equipment<br /> • Labour skills<br /> <br /> '''Building material constraints'''<br /> • Ability to cope with movement: structural movement; intrinsic movement (i.e. shrinkage);temperature (both diurnal and seasonal)<br /> • Availability (reference countries outside the UK)<br /> • Durability: maintenance; repair; replacement<br /> • Appearance: applied finishes; manufactured finishes; weathering<br /> • Buildability: prefabrication; cast-on-site; method of attachment; connections<br /> <br /> '''Structural engineering and safety constraints'''<br /> • Statutory regulations and Codes of Practice<br /> • Structural materials<br /> • Strength, stiffness, fatigue, etc.<br /> • Construction method and sequence<br /> • Possibility of overload<br /> • Connections<br /> • Foundations<br /> • Fire resistance<br /> • Watertightness, durability and deterioration<br /> • Column spacing and floor system<br /> • Stability, bracing and shear walls<br /> • Future extensions or change of use<br /> • Distribution of services<br /> • Architectural layout<br /> <br /> '''Performance requirements'''<br /> • Structural safety: safely buildable, safe in use, safely removed after use; cracking; records for future alterations and/or extensions<br /> • Serviceability (all relative to the intended service life): fire resistance; thermal insulation; acoustic insulation; durability and cracking; movement and vibration - load induced and/or inherent to materials<br /> • Maintenance: Preserve the performance – cracking; records of condition, repairs made, replacements<br /> • Economic construction: ‘value for money’; Initial cost; cost in use<br /> • Structure: support external envelope; support the finishes; support the services; support the people and contents<br /> • Enclosure: non-loadbearing internal walls and partitions; non-loadbearing external walls and windows<br /> • Finishes: insulation: weatherproofing; wearing surfaces; superficial appearance, inside and outside<br /> • Services: water supply and storage; heating and cooling, ventilation; prevention of excessive heating or cooling; artificial light; power, lifts, etc.; waste disposal; fire escape; rainwater disposal<br /> • Basements: watertightness, sumps and pumping; appearance, lighting and ventilation; access – general and emergency<br /> <br /> The features of a feasible scheme will be dictated by a number of analytical, material and constructional parameters<br /> <br /> '''Analytical parameters'''<br /> • The perception of the loads: imposed, imposed dead, and self-weight or dead loads. The type of load: uniform, point, moving, cyclic, etc.<br /> • The characteristics of the structural materials: strengths in tension, compression, shear, stiffness of the material (E value), weights. Effects of temperature, moisture and sustained loading<br /> • Span, height and support conditions: one-way or two-way spanning, simple or continuous spans; combined stresses such as with columns where the compression can be combined with uni-axial or biaxial bending; hinged, sliding or fixed support<br /> <br /> '''Material parameters'''<br /> • Ability to cope with structural and non-structural movements<br /> • Availability (restricted in some countries by cost, custom or lack of appropriate skills)<br /> • Appearance (as required by client of architect, or as available from the method of construction)<br /> • Durability (influenced by the environment, façade treatment and appearance required)<br /> • Maintenance (functions of the physical nature of the materials, the environment, expected economic life of the subject, architectural finishes, safety and seviceability constraints)<br /> • Method of assembly (influenced by the physical nature of the materials, local customs and skills, available machinery, transport and programme) Constructional parameters<br /> • The construction method shall be safe and stable and may not endanger humans nor adjacent property, roads or services<br /> • Short- and long-term support during demolition, including underpinning and shoring<br /> • Control of dust and noise levels<br /> • Support to sides of excavations<br /> • Control of groundwater<br /> • Transport and placing of materials<br /> • Suitability of mechanical plant and equipment (e.g. scaffolding)<br /> • Protection of the public, and protection of the amenity and environment<br /> • Programme<br /> • Cost<br /> • Stability during construction<br /> • Early weathertightness<br /> • Attention to the special sequence-dependent construction<br /> <br /> '''Technology identification'''<br /> • Framed system: slabs and beams; columns and walls; cantilevers; girders and Vierendeel girders; portals; bracing<br /> • Trussed system: trusses; space frames; cable stays; geodesic domes<br /> • Funicular systems: catenary cable; tents; pneumatics; arches; vaults<br /> • Surface structures: shells; folded plates<br /> • Principal axis: transverse; longitudinal; bi-axial (square, circle)<br /> • Material: steel (rolled sections; traditional site bolted; welded fabrication; site-welded connections); concrete (in situ; precast; pre- or post-tensioned);<br /> timber; masonry (stone; brick; concrete block); other (alloys; synthetics; glass); composites<br /> • Foundation: traditional strip footing; pad or pier with groundbeams; pile, caisson, barrette; combined base; raft, cellular raft; basement<br /> • Stability: gravity structure; bracing; shear walls, core, hull-core; rigid joint; anchors<br /> • Multi-storey: From ground to roof or full-height frame; raised on pillotis and then full-height frame; Fullheight frame with alternative groups of floors<br /> (villages) and penetrations (gardens); Core – roof frame – hangers, beams and slabs<br /> • Floor systems: concrete (beam and slab construction; flat slabs and flat plates; waffle and ribbed slabs; prestressed slabs; precast units; patented systems); steel (metal decking with concrete topping; steel beams with composite concrete slab; steel beams with precast concrete slab); timber (beam, joist and floor boards)<br /> • Special issues: retaining walls; waterproofing of basements; water-containing structures; earthquake resisting structures.</div>

Johnmcgee2000 https://www.structuralwiki.org/structural-wiki-en/index.php?title=Category:Handbook&diff=5462 2007-07-27T14:58:10Z

<p>Johnmcgee2000: </p> <hr /> <div>Outline of the handbook:<br /> <br /> # Structural Analysis<br /> # Reinforced Concrete<br /> # Structural Steel<br /> # Bridges<br /> # Buildings<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Bridges''' ==<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> A bridge is a means by which a road, railway or other<br /> service is carried over an obstacle such as a river, valley,<br /> other road or railway line, either with no intermediate<br /> support or with only a limited number of supports at<br /> convenient locations.<br /> Bridges range in size from very modest short spans<br /> over, say, a small river to the extreme examples of<br /> suspension bridges crossing wide estuaries.<br /> Appearance is naturally less crucial for the smaller<br /> bridges, but in all cases the designer will consider the<br /> appearance of the basic elements which make up his<br /> bridge, the superstructure and the substructure, and<br /> choose proportions which are appropriate to the<br /> particular circumstances considered. The use of steel<br /> often helps the designer to select proportions that are<br /> aesthetically pleasing.<br /> <br /> '''Basic Features of Bridges'''</div>

Johnmcgee2000